The world’s drylands include hyperarid, arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas where rainfall is highly variable, droughts are common and water is the principal limiting factor for agriculture. Dryland soils, which are characterized by low levels of moisture, organic matter, and biological activity, often display poor fertility. When inappropriately utilized for agriculture, these soils are susceptible to rapid fertility loss, erosion, desertification, and salinization.
This guideline details how conservation agriculture, rain water harvesting, agroforestry (especially with indigenous trees), the use of cross-slope barriers, integrated soil fertility management, integrated crop and livestock management, sustainable forest management, and improved irrigation design can all be employed. When these strategies are effectively implemented, in combination or alone, they can help conserve water, enhance soil fertility, improve crop water-use efficiency, and boost rangeland health, while preventing the unintended negative consequences associated with dryland farming.
Ensuring environmental and social integrity is essential for long term sustainability of agriculture in drylands. The main mechanism to protect environmental resources, ecosystems and the health and livelihoods of beneficiaries of USAID programs, is through the EIA process as defined by Title 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations (22 CFR) part 216. The Environmental Procedures Training Manual (EPTM); the document on Environmental Compliance Procedures and the Environmental Compliance Management System, Standard Operating Procedure Manual can all be referred to, to assist USAID staff and their implementing partners in their attempts to meet EIA requirements and ensure that the potential environmental and social impacts of agricultural projects on drylands are identified, avoided and/or mitigated. In order to be successful, EIAs must also pay specific attention to indigenous and community participation in decision making, community access to benefits, women’s involvement and human health issues.
Resources
- Aagaard, P. 2007. Conservation Farming and Conservation Agriculture: Handbook for Ox Farmers and Hand Hoe Farmers in Agroecological Regions I and IIa, p 6. CFU/ZNFU, Agricultural Showgrounds. Lusaka, Zambia.
- Aagaard, P.J. 2010. Conservation Farming, Productivity and Climate Change Conservation Farming Unit (CFU) Zambia. ftp://ftp.fao.org/ag/agp/ca/CA_CoP_Apr11/CA_PRODUCTIVITY_%20CLIMATE_CHANGE.pdf
- Bezuidenhout, J.D., Stutterheim, C.J. 1980. A critical evaluation of the role played by the red-billed oxpecker Buphagus erythrorhynchus in the biological control of ticks. Onderstepoort Journal of Veterinary Research 47: pp 58-75.
- Birner, R., Quisumbing, A., and Nazneen, A. 2010. “Cross- cutting Issues: Governance and Gender.” Dhaka Paper Presented at the Bangladesh Food Security Investment Forum, 26–27 May 2010, Dhaka. http://bangladeshfoodsecurity.files.wordpress.com/2010/05/cross-cutting.pdf
- Brown, L.H. 2009b. The effects of climate change on revenues to commercial agriculture and tourism enterprises in Namibia. MSc Environmental Economics Thesis, University of York, York, UK, p 83.
- Carvalho, F.P. 2006. Agriculture, pesticides, food security and food safety Environmental science & policy 9 (2006), pp 685–692.
https://www.uni-hohenheim.de/fileadmin/einrichtungen/agnas/Documents/Carvalho__2006.pdf
- Chaudhry, M.J.I., Ogada, D.L, Malik, R.N., Virani, M.Z., and Giovanni, M.D. 2012. First evidence that populations of the critically endangered Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus in Pakistan have increased following the ban of the toxic veterinary drug diclofenac in south Asia. Bird Conservation International, 229(4), p 389.
- Cheetah Conservation Fund (CCF). 2005. Livestock guard dogs.
http://www.catsg.org/cheetah/01_information/1_5_factsheets/livestock-guard-dogs.pdf
- CCF. 2014. Livestock and wildlife management techniques.
http://www.cheetah.org/?nd=conservation and http://www.cheetah.org/?nd=ccf_bush_project.
- Davila, E. 2013. Bringing land back to life: Farmer Managed Natural Resource Generation. CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land, and Ecosystems. http://wle.cgiar.org/blogs/2013/11/12/bringing-land-back-to-life-farmer-managed-natural-resource-generation/
- Dirkx, E., Hager, C., Tadross, M., Bethune, S. and Curtis, B. 2008. Climate change Vulnerability & Adaptation Assessment Namibia. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia.
References and Reading List
- Dixon, J.A., James, D.E., and Sherman, P.B. 2013. Economics of dry land management. Routledge.
- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). 2003. Gender and Sustainable Development in Drylands: an Analysis of Field Experiences. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/j0086e/j0086e00.HTM
- FAO. 2004. Carbon sequestration in dryland soils. http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/y5738e/y5738e00.htm
- FAO. 1995. Corporate document repository: Environmental impact assessment of irrigation and drainage projects. http://www.fao.org/docrep/V8350E/V8350E00.htm
- FAO. 1997. Irrigation potential in Africa. http://www.fao.org/docrep/w4347e/w4347e00.htm
- FAO. 2014. The Livestock, Environment and Development Initiative. http://www.fao.org/agriculture/lead/lead/en/
- Gerber, P., Mooney, H.A., Dijkman, J., Tarawali, S., and de Haan, C. 2010. Livestock in a changing landscape: Experiences and Regional Perspectives. Island Press, Washington. http://www.fao.org/docrep/013/am075e/am075e00.pdf
- Goldmann, L. 2004. Childhood Pesticide Poisoning Information for Advocacy and Action.
http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/pestpoisoning.pdf
- GOPA Community Based Rangeland (GOPA-CBRLM). 2013. Community Based Rangeland and Livestock Management – Sustainable wealth creation in the northern communal areas of Namibia. http://www.mcanamibia.org/files/files/CBRLMBooklet2013.pdf
- Grobler, J.H. 1979. The re-introduction of oxpeckers Buphagus africanus and B. erythrorhynchus to the Rhodes Matopos National Park, Rhodesia. Biological Conservation 15: p 158.
- Haggblade, S., and Tembo, G. 2003. Development, Diffusion And Impact Of Conservation Farming In Zambia Fsrp Working Paper No. 8. http://fsg.afre.msu.edu/zambia/wp8zambia.pdf
- Hobbs, P.R., Sayre, K. and Gupta, R. 2008. The role of conservation agriculture in sustainable agriculture. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 12 February 2008 vol. 363 no. 1491 543-555. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17720669
- International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) 20. Livestock and pastoralists. http://www.ifad.org/lrkm/factsheet/pastoralists.pdf
- Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). 2007. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Summary for Policymakers. Working Group II Contribution to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Fourth Assessment Report.
http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/contents.html
- Kasuta, E.T., Mwale, M.M., Hichaambwa, M.H. and Fushike, P. 2002. Towards sustainable agriculture in Eastern Province? Mid-term evaluation of World Vision Zambia Integrated Agroforestry Project, commissioned by USAID-Zambia.
- Kelsey, J. 2013. Encouraging the Adoption of Agroforestry: A Case Study in Eastern Province, Zambia Innovations for Poverty Action
http://www.poverty-action.org/sites/default/files/in-depth_research_results_2013.pdf
- Koocheki, A. and Gliessman, R. 2005. Pastoral nomadism: a sustainable system for grazing land management in arid areas. Journal of Development Agriculture 25 (4).
- Kurugundla, C.N., Kgori, P.M. and Moleele, N. Undated. Management of Tsetse Fly Using Insecticides in Northern Botswana.
http://www.water.gov.bw/images/tsetsefly.pdf
- Larke, E. 1997. The problems associated with pesticide use by irrigation workers in Ghana. Occupational Medicine (London), 1997. 47(5): 301-8.
- Larsen, G., and Ballesteros, A. 2013. “Striking the Balance: Ownership and Accountability In Social and Environmental Safeguards.” Working Paper. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. http://pdf.wri.org/striking_the_balance_ownership_and_accountability_in_social_and_environmental_safeguards.pdf
- Liniger, H.P., Mekdaschi Studer, R., Hauert, C. and Gurtner, M. 2011. Sustainable Land Management in Practice – Guidelines and Best Practice for Sub-Saharan Africa. WOCAT and FAO. http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1861e/i1861e00.pdf
- Mele, P.M. and Carter, M.R. 1999. Impact of crop management factors in conservation tillage farming on earthworm density, age structure and species abundance in south-eastern AustraliaSoil and Tillage Research, Volume 50, Issue 1, 15 February 1999, Pages 1–10.
- Midgley, G., Hughes, G., Thuiller, W., Drew, G. and Foden, W. 2005. Assessment of potential climate change impacts on Namibia’s floristic diversity, ecosystem structure and function. Report for: Namibian National Biodiversity Programme, Directorate of Environmental Affairs by the Climate Change Research Group, South African National Biodiversity Institute (SANBI), Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden. Cape Town.
- Mupangwa, W., Twomlow, S. and Walker, S. 2007. Conservation Tillage for Soil Water Management in the Semi Arid Southern Zimbabwe. http://cgspace.cgiar.org/bitstream/handle/10568/21293/21293.pdf?sequence=1
- National Association of Security Companies (NACSO). 2011. Namibia’s Communal Conservancies.
http://www.nacso.org.na/SOC_profiles/Namibia's%20Communal%20Conservancies.pdf
- Neuman, W. and Pollack, A. 2010. NY Times Farmers Cope With Roundup-Resistant Weeds, May 3rd 2010.
http://www.nytimes.com/2010/05/04/business/energy-environment/04weed.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0
- Ogada, D.L., Keesing, F. and Virani, M.Z. 2011. Dropping dead: causes and consequences of vulture population declines worldwide. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 40: 1-15. https://www.peregrinefund.org/docs/pdf/research-library/2011/2011-Ogada-vultures.pdf
- Orasecom. 2008. Orange-Senqu River Basin. Preliminary transboundary diagnostic analysis. UNDP and GE. p 197.
http://www.orasecom.org/_system/writable/DMSStorage/651orange-senqu-river-basin-preliminary-transboundary-diagnostic-analysis.pdf
- Parr, J.F., Papendick, R.I., Hornick, S.B. and Meyer, R.E. 1992. Soil quality: Attributes and relationship to alternative and sustainable agriculture. American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 7, pp 5-11 doi:10.1017/S0889189300004367
- Rinaudo, T., (World Vision Australia). 2010 (Updated 2012). Farmer Managed Natural Regeneration: Exception Impact of a Novel Approach to Reforestation in Sub-Saharan Africa. (ECHO Technical Note #65). Fort Myers, FL: ECHO.
- Saito, K., Mekonnen, H. and Spurling, D. 1994. Raising the Productivity of Women Farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa (Discussion Paper 230). Washington, D.C.: World Bank.
- Schulze, R.E. (ed) 2005. Climate change and water resources in southern Africa. Studies on Scenarios, impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation. WRC Report No: 1430/1/05. 470 pp
- Scientific American. 2009. Weed-Whacking Herbicide Proves Deadly to Human Cells.
http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/weed-whacking-herbicide-p/
- Seely, M. 1991. Namibia - drought and desertification. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.
- Singh, S. 2010. Enhancing agriculture by ecosystem management in Hiware Bazaar, India.
http://www.teebweb.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Enhancing-agriculture-by-ecosystem-management-in-Hiware-Bazaar-India.pdf
- Steinfeld, H., Mooney, H.A., Schneider, F. and Neville, L.E. 2010. Livestock in a changing landscape Vol 1 Drivers, Consequences and Reponses. Island Press.
- Tarr, J. 1999. Namibia’s initial country study on climate change. Report number 2: An Overview of Namibia's Vulnerability to Climate Change. Desert Research Foundation of Namibia. p 161.
- Turpie, J., Midgley, G., Brown, C., Barnes, J., Tarr, J., Tarr, P., Pallett, J. and Desmet, P. 2010. Climate change vulnerability and adaptation assessment for Namibia’s Biodiversity and protected areas system. SAIEA; Anchor Consulting and NNF.
- United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD). 2013. Namibian Declaration on a stronger UNCCD for a land degradation neutral world. Windhoek, Namibia, 16-27 September 013. http://www.unccd.int/Lists/SiteDocumentLibrary/COP/COP%2011/Namibian%20declaration%20-%2027%20sep%202013.pdf
- United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). 2012. Guidelines for Integrating HIV and Gender-related Issues into Environmental Assessment in Eastern and Southern Africa. Prepared for UNDP Regional Centre for Eastern and Southern Africa. Compiled by the Southern African Institute for Environmental Assessment (SAIEA). http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/hivaids/English/Guidelines_for_Integrating_HIV_and_Gender_related_Issues_into_
Environmental_Assessment_in_Eastern_and_Southern_Africa.pdf
- UNDP-Office to Combat Desertification and Drought (UNSO). 2002. Drylands: an overview.
- United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), FAO and WHO. 2004. Childhood Pesticide Poisoning. http://www.unep.org/chemicalsandwaste/Portals/9/Pesticides/pestpoisoning.pdf
- UNEP. 2000. Global Environmental Outlook 2000. http://www.unep.org/geo/geo2000.asp
- UNEP-Global Environment Facility Coordination (GEF). 2010. Dryland Livestock Wildlife Environment Interface Project. http://www.unep.org/dgef/
- The Dryland Livestock Wildlife Environment Interface Project. Experiences and lessons from livestock-wildlife-environment interface management in Kenya and Burkina Faso. http://www.unep.org/pdf/GEF_Livestock_wildlife_lessons.pdf
- USAID. 2008. USAID support to the Community-Based Natural Resource Management Program in Namibia: LIFE Program Review. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PDACL549.pdf
- USAID. 2013. Nature, Wealth & Power 2.0: Leveraging Natural and Social Capital for Resilient Development. http://www.engilitycorp.com/nwp/NWP2FINAL.PDF
- USAID. 2013. Sector Environmental Guidelines: Agriculture. USAID Global Environmental Management Support Programme. http://www.usaidgems.org/Documents/SectorGuidelines/USAID%20Sector%20Guideline%20Agriculture%202013.pdf
- USAID. 2014. African & Latin American Resilience to Climate Change (ARCC). Four New Papers on Planning Climate Change Adaptation Options. http://community.eldis.org/ARCC/.5b36f7fe/.5bcfd652
- Van Duivenboodew, N., Paln, M., Studer, C., Bielders, C. and Beukes, D. 2000. Cropping systems and crop complementarity in dryland agriculture to increase soil water use efficiency: a review. Netherlands Journal of Agricultural Science 48: 213-236. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1573521400800159
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- Excellent Development. What are Sand Dams? http://www.excellentdevelopment.com/articles/people-amp-communities/what-are-sand-dams
- Worldwatch Institute. 2011. Africa’s indigenous crops. http://www.worldwatch.org/system/files/NtP-Africa's-Indigenous-Crops.pdf
- World Health Organization (WHO). 2010. Preventing Disease Through Healthy Environments. http://www.who.int/ipcs/features/10chemicals_en.pdf
- WHO. 2014. Agrochemicals, health and environment: directory of resources http://who.int/heli/risks/toxics/chemicalsdirectory/en/index1.html
- World Bank. 2011. Vulnerability, risk reduction and adaptation to climate change – Ethiopia. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportalb/doc/GFDRRCountryProfiles/wb_gfdrr_climate_change_country_profile_for_ETH.pdf
- Zabaloy, M., Zanini, G., Bianchinotti, V., Marisa, A., Gomez, M. and Garland, J. 2011. Herbicides in the Soil Environment: Linkage between Bioavailability and Microbial Ecology, Herbicides, Theory and Applications, Prof. Marcelo Larramendy (Ed.), ISBN: 978-953-307-975-2, InTech, Available from: http://www.intechopen.com/books/howtoreference/herbicides-theory-and-applications/herbicides-in-the-soil-environment-linkage-between-bioavailability-and-microbial-ecology
Suggested Reading List
Conservation Farming Unit (CFU)
- The CFU Zambia web site is useful for those interested in the promotion of Conservation Farming and Climate Smart Agriculture. The following documents can be accessed via the CFU website: http://conservationagriculture.org/articles.
- Green Rocks and Green Trees.pdf
- CA-Productivity-and-Climate-Change-20.5.11.pdf
- Conservation-Farming-Food-and-Productivity-25.1.2011.pdf
- Key-Ag-Sector-Challenges-Zambia.pdf
- Maize-Production-And-Cf-In-Zambia.pdf
Other Resources
- Winterbottom, R., et al. 2013. “Improving Land and Water Management.” Working Paper, Installment 4 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Accessible at: http://www.wri.org/publication/improving-land-and-water-management
- ECHO Community: Global Agriculture Network, http://www.echocommunity.org/
- EcoAgriculture Partners strives for a world where agricultural communities manage their landscapes