This document is designed for project managers, project implementers, practitioners, or others working on development or environmental management projects that could impact artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM) projects or communities that engage in ASM. This document addresses the following main components of ASM, after introducing the sector:
- The impact of development projects on ASM;
- The impacts of ASM on the environment, health, and socio-political systems on multiple scales;
- Best practices and mitigation measures for minimizing detrimental impacts of ASM;
- The impact of climate change on ASM; and
- The impact of ASM on climate change.
This SEG for ASM introduces the range of possible impacts, particularly environmental, health, and socio-political, and explains how project managers and others can support prevention and/or mitigation through project design, environmental analyses for initial environmental examinations (IEEs), and during the development of site-specific environmental mitigation and monitoring plans (EMMPs). A focus on best practices and mitigation measures for ESDM of USAID projects will help missions comply with Section 117 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) and Regulation 216, which require that EIAs be conducted and mitigations implemented for all USAID projects. This guideline is also intended to help USAID partners, staff, and other practitioners understand climate change impacts to and from ASM activities. Finally, the references section of the document lists cited documents as well as additional resources and references on this topic. The annexes address common ASM-related terminology in a glossary; the general ASM production phase, processing, and related technologies; and considerations for project design.
Resources
Overview Section
- Gyan-Baffour, G. (2003). Artisanal mining and poverty. Presented at Communities and Small-Scale Mining Annual General Meeting, Elmina, Ghana, 2003. Available at: http://www.artisanalmining.org/Repository/01/The_CASM_Files/CASM_Meetings_International/2003_Elmina_AGM/Presentations
/Elmina%202003%20-%20Workshop%20-%20Poverty%20Reduction%20-%204.pdf.
- Hruschka, F. & Echavarria, C. 2011. Rock solid chances for responsible artisanal mining, Medellin: Communitymining.org.
- Jennings, N. 1999. Social and labor issues in small-scale mines. International Labor Organization. Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, Geneva, 17-21 May 1999 Available at: https://unites.uqam.ca/gmf/globalmercuryforum/files/articles/small_scale_mining/General%20ILO%201999%20-%20Social%20and%20labour%20in%20small-scale%20mines.pdf.
- Kasper A, Kristensen B, Thomasen JF. 2014. A review of mercury exposure among artisanal small-scale gold miners in developing countries. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 87:579-590.
- Long RN, Renne EP, Basu N. Understanding the Social Context of the ASGM Sector in Ghana: A Qualitative Description of the Demographic, Health, and Nutritional Characteristics of a Small-Scale Gold Mining Community in Ghana. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015 Oct 12;12(10):12679-96.
- Noorani J. & De Brouckere L. (2016). A Balancing Act for Extractive Sector Governance. Afghanistan Research and Evaluation Unit and German Foreign Ministry of Economic Cooperation and Development Issues Paper. Available at: https://areu.org.af/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/1610E-A-Balancing-
Act-for-Extractive-Sector-Governance1.pdf.
- McIntyre N, Bulovic N, Cane I, McKenna P. A multi-disciplinary approach to understanding the impacts of mines on traditional uses of water in Northern Mongolia. Sci Total Environ. 2016 Jul 1;557-558:404-14.
- Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development Project. 2002. Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals and Sustainable Development. International Institute for Environment and Development. Available at: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/9084IIED.pdf.
- Renaud, Karine. 2013. Afghanistan 2013 Minerals Yearbook: The Mineral Industry of Afghanistan. USGS. Available at: https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/country/2013/myb3-2013-af.pdf.
- Telmer K. Artisanal Gold Council. Presentations Doing Business with the Small and Artisanal Gold Mining Sector Responsibly– Opportunities, Challenges, and Agenda for the Future. Dubai Precious Metals Conference. 2014. Available at http://www.artisanalgold.org/publications/presentations/.
- Telmer KH & Veiga MM (2009). World Emissions of Mercury from Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. In: Pirrone M & Mason R, editors. Mercury Fate and Transport in the Global Atmosphere. New York: Springer:131-172.
- Telmer K & Stapper D. A Practical Guide: Reducing Mercury Use in Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. Available at: http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances/portals. Kenya Nairobi, Switzerland Geneva United Nations Environment Programme 2012.
- Tschakert, P., & Singha, K. (2007). Contaminated identities: Mercury and marginalization in Ghana’s artisanal mining sector. Geoforum, 38(6), 1304-1321.
- UNEP. 2013. Text of the Minamata Convention on Mercury for Adoption by the Conference of Plenipotentiaries. July 31. Available at: http://www.unep.org/hazardoussubstances/portals/9/mercury/documents/dipcon/conf_3_minamata%20convention%20on%20
mercury_
final%2026%2008:e.pdf
- Veiga MM, Hinton J (2002) Abandoned artisanal gold mines in the Brazilian Amazon: a legacy of mercury pollution. Nat Resour Forum 26:15–26
Environmental Impacts
- Ako TA, Onoduku US, Oke SA, Adamu IA, Ali SE, Mamodu A, Ibrahim AT (2014). Environmental Impact of Artisanal Gold Mining in Luku, Minna, Niger State, North Central Nigeria. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics 2(1): 28-37.
- Ishola R, Abdulgarfar K. (2014). Impacts of Artisanal Mining on Some Heavy Metals Concentrations in Surface Water in Kutcheri, Zamfara State North-Western Nigeria. Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies 3(7): 74-82.
- Ministerio del Ambiente de Peru. (2017). Manual de buenas practicas en mineria aurifera alluvial para facilitar una adecuada recuperacion de areas. Available at: http://www.minam.gob.pe/calidadambiental/wp-content/uploads/sites/22/2017/02/2017-01-30-Manual-de-buenas-pr%C3%A1cticas-en-miner%C3%ADa-aur%C3%ADfera-aluvial-para-facilitar-una-adecuada-recuperacion-de-%C3%A1reas-FINAL-3.pdf.
- Tsurukawa N, Prakash S, Manhart A (2011). Social Impacts of Artisanal Mining in Katanga, Democratic Republic of Congo. Oko-Institut, Freiburg, Germany.
- Uglow D (1999). Mitigating the Environmental Impact of Artisanal Quarrying: Considerations of Awareness and Incentives: A Report for DFID/ITDG. United Kingdom.
Health Impacts
- Calys-Tagoe BN, Ovadje L, Clarke E, Basu N, Robins T. Injury Profiles Associated with Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Tarkwa, Ghana. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015 Jul 10;12(7):7922-37.
- Elenge, M.; Leveque, A.; De Brouwer, C. Occupational accidents in artisanal mining in Katanga, DRC. Int. J. Occup. Med. Environ. Health 2013, 26, 265–274.
- Michelo, P.; Bratveit, M.; Moen, B.E. Occupational injuries and fatalities in copper mining in Zambia. Occup. Med. (Lond.) 2009, 59, 191–194.
- Sutherland, D.K.B. Occupational injuries in a gold mining company in Ghana. Afr. News. Occup. Health Saf. 2011, 21, 8–10.
Biomechanical Injury
- Donoghue A (2004). Occupational health hazards in mining: an overview. Occupational Medicine. 54(5): 283-289.
- Hinton J, Veiga MM & Beinhoff C (2003a). Women and artisanal mining: gender roles and the road ahead. In: Hilson G, editor. The socio-economic impacts of ASM in developing countries. Lisse: A.A. Balkema: 161-203.
- Jerie S. (2013). Ergonomic Hazards Associated with Small Scale Mining in Southern Africa Int. J. Pure Appl. Sci. Technol., 15(2) (2013), 8-17.
- Ridd, J.E. 1985. Spatial restraints and intra-abdominal pressure. Ergonomics, 28(1): 149-166.
Work-related Musculoskeletal Disorders (WMSD)
- Hinton J (2006). Communities and small-scale mining: an integrated review for development planning. Washington (DC): World Bank.
- International Labour Organization. Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines. Report for Discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines; International Labour Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1999.
- Kyeremateng-Amoah, E., and Edith E. Clarke. 2015. Injuries among artisanal and small-scale gold miners in Ghana." International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 12.9 (2015): 10886-10896.
- Long RN, Sun K, Neitzel RL (2015b). Injury risk factors in a small-scale gold mining community in Ghana's Upper East Region. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 12(8):8744-61.
Physical Trauma
- Amedofu, G.K. Hearing-impairment among workers in a surface gold mining company in Ghana. Afr. J. Health Sci. 2002, 9, 91–97.
- Basner M, Babisch W, Davis A, Brink M, Clark C, Janssen S, Stansfeld S. Auditory and non-auditory effects of noise on health. Lancet. 20.
- Eisler R (2003). Health risks of gold miners: a synoptic review. Environmental Geochemistry and Health. 25(3): 325-345.
- Goines, L.; Hagler, L. Noise pollution: A modern plague. South. Med. J. 2007, 100, 287–294.
- Green A, Jones AD, Sun K & Nietzel RL (2015). The association between noise, cortisol and heart rate in a small-scale gold mining community: a pilot study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health. 12: 9952-9966.
- Harari R & Harari Freire F (2013). Safety and health in mining in Ecuador. In: K Elgstrand & E Vingård, editors. Occupational safety and Health in Mining. Anthology on the situation in 16 mining countries. Gothenburg: Occupational and Environmental Medicine at Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg: 171-178.
- Hinton J, Veiga MM & Beinhoff C (2003a). Women and artisanal mining: gender roles and the road ahead. In: Hilson G, editor. The socio-economic impacts of artisanal and small-scale mining in developing countries. Lisse: A.A. Balkema: 161-203.
- Saunders, J.E.; Jastrzembski, B.G.; Buckey, J.C.; Enriquez, D.; MacKenzie, T.A.; Karagas, M.R. Hearing loss and heavy metal toxicity in a Nicaraguan mining community: Audiological results and case reports. Audiol. Neurotol. 2013, 18, 101–113.
- Van Kamp, I.; Davies, H. Noise and health in vulnerable groups: A review. Noise Health 2013,15, 153–159. 14 Apr 12;383(9925):1325-32.
- World Health Organization (2011). Burden of disease from environmental noise: quantification of healthy years lost in Europe. Bonn: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
- Zubieta, I.X.; Brown, G.; Cohen, R.; Medina, E. Cananea copper mine: An international effort to improve hazardous working conditions in Mexico. Int. J. Occup. Environ. Health 2009, 15,14–20.
Physical Exposures
- Basu N, Renne EP, Long RN. An Integrated Assessment Approach to Address Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015 Sep 17;12(9):11683-98.
- Hentschel R & Hruschka F (2002). Global report on artisanal and small-scale mining. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
- International Labour Organization. Social and Labour Issues in Small-Scale Mines. Report for Discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines; International Labour Organization: Geneva, Switzerland, 1999.
- Paruchuri, Y.; Siuniak, A.; Johnson, N.; Levin, E.; Mitchell, K.; Goodrich, J.M.; Renne, E.P.; Basu, N. Occupational and environmental mercury exposure among small-scale gold miners in the Talensi-Nabdam District of Ghana’s Upper East region. Sci. Total Environ. 2010, 408, 6079–6085.
Hazards in Confined Spaces
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2014). Medical management guideline for mercury. (Available at: http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/mmg/mmg.asp?id=106&tid=24, accessed 27 August 2014).
- Aschner, M., et al., 1997. Metallothionein induction in fetal rat brain and neonatal primary astrocyte cultures by in utero exposure to elemental mercury vapor (Hg 0). Brain Res. 778, 222–232.
- Basu N, Clarke E, Green A, Calys-Tagoe B, Chan L, Dzodzomenyo M, Fobil J, Long RN, Neitzel RL, Obiri S, Odei E, Ovadje L, Quansah R, Rajaee M, Wilson ML. Integrated assessment of artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Ghana--part 1: human health review. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2015 May 13;12(5):5143-76.
- Bose-O'Reilly, S., et al., 2010a. Mercury exposure and children's health. Curr. Probl Pediatr Adolesc Health Care. 40, 186–215.
- Bose-O'Reilly, S., et al., 2010b. Health assessment of artisanal gold miners in Tanzania. Sci. Total Environ. 408, 796–805.
- Dart RC & Sullivan JB (2004). Mercury. In: Dart RC et al., editors. Medical Toxicology 3rd Ed. Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 1437-1448.
- Drasch, G., et al., 1994. Mercury burden of human fetal and infant tissues. Eur. J. Pediatr. 153, 607–610.
- Echeverria D, Aposhian HV, Woods JS, Heyer NJ, Aposhian MM, Bittner AC Jr, Mahurin RK, Cianciola M. Neurobehavioral effects from exposure to dental amalgam Hg(o): new distinctions between recent exposure and Hg body burden. FASEB J. 1998Aug;12(11):971-80.
- Gibb H & O’Leary KG (2014). Mercury exposure and health impacts among individuals in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining community: a comprehensive review. Environ Health Perspect. 122(7): 667-672.
- Harari, R., et al., 2012. Exposure and toxic effects of elemental mercury in gold-mining activities in Ecuador. Toxicol. Lett. 213, 75–82.
- Hu, H., 2000. Exposure to metals. Prim. care: Clin Off Pract. 27, 983–996.
- Kristensen AK, Thomsen JF, Mikkelsen S (2013). A review of mercury exposure among artisanal and small-scale miners in developing countries. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. Aug 27. PubMed PMID: 23979147.
- Landrigan PJ & Etzel RA (2013). Textbook of Children's Environmental Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- Rajaee M, Sanchez BN, Renne EP, Basu N (2015a). An Investigation of Organic and Inorganic Mercury Exposure and Blood Pressure in a Small-Scale Gold Mining Community in Ghana. International journal of environmental research and public health. 2015;12(8):10020-38. PubMed PMID: 26308023.
- Tchounwou, P.B., et al., 2012. Heavy Metal Toxicity and the Environment. Molecular, Clinical and Environmental Toxicology. Springer, 133–164.
- USEPA. 2017. Mercury emissions: the global context. https://www.epa.gov/international-cooperation/mercury-emissions-global-
context. Last updated May 2017.
- Yard EE, Horton J, Schier JG, Caldwell K, Sanchez C, Lewis L, et al. 2012. Mercury exposure among artisanal gold miners in Madre de Dios, Peru: a cross-sectional study. J Med Toxicol 8(4):441–448.
- World Health Organization (2013a). Mercury exposure and health impacts among individuals in the artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) community. Geneva: World Health Organization.
Chemical Hazards: Elemental mercury
- Crump KS, Kjellström T, Shipp M, Silvers A, Stewart A. Influence of prenatal mercury exposure upon scholastic and psychological test performance: benchmark analysis of a New Zealand cohort. Risk Anal 1998;18:701–13.
- Clarkson TW, Magos L. The toxicology of mercury and its chemical compounds. Crit Rev Toxicol 2006;36:609–62.
- Committee on Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, National Research Council of the United States, National Academies of Science. Toxicological effects of methylmercury. Washington: National Academies Press; 2000.
- Environmental health criteria document 101: methylmercury. Geneva: International Program for Chemical Safety, World Health Organization; 1990.
- Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F, Araki S, Yokoyama K et al. Cognitive deficit in 7-year-old children with prenatal exposure to methylmercury. Neurotoxicol Teratol 1997;19:417–28. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0892-0362(97)00097-4 PMID:9392777.
- Grandjean P, Landrigan PJ. (2014). Neurobehavioural effects of developmental toxicity. Lancet Neurol. 2014 Mar; 13(3): 330–338.
- Kjellström T, Kennedy P, Wallis S, Mantell C. Stage 1: Preliminary Tests at Age 4. Solna: National Swedish Environmental Protection Board; 1986. Physical and Mental Development of Children with Prenatal Exposure to Mercury from Fish. Report 3080.
- Kjellström T, Kennedy P, Wallis S, Stewart A, Friberg L, Lind B. Stage II: Interviews and Psychological Tests at Age 6. Solna: National Swedish Environmental Protection Board; 1989. Physical and Mental Development of Children with Prenatal Exposure to Mercury from Fish. Report 3642.
- McKeown-Eyssen GE, Ruedy J, Neims A. Methyl mercury exposure in northern Quebec. II. Neurologic findings in children. Am J Epidemiol. 1983;118(4):470–479.
- Myers GJ, Marsh DO, Davidson PW, Cox C, Shamlaye CF, Tanner M et al. Main neurodevelopmental study of Seychellois children following in utero exposure to methylmercury from a maternal fish diet: outcome at six months. Neurotoxicology 1995;16:653–64. PMID:8714870.
- Pearson, H. 2004. Mercury affects brains of adolescents. Nature. doi:10.1038/news040202-16.
- Sheehan MC, Burke T, Navas-Acien A, Breysse PN, McGready J, Fox MA (2014). Global methylmercury exposure from seafood consumption and risk of developmental neurotoxicity: a systematic review. Bull World Health Organ. 2014 Apr 1; 92(4): 254–269F.
- World Health Organization [Internet]. Mercury and health (Fact sheet No. 361). Geneva: WHO; 2013. Available from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs361/en/.
Chemical Hazards: Methyl mercury
- Banza, Célestin Lubaba Nkulu, et al. (2009). High human exposure to cobalt and other metals in Katanga, a mining area of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Environmental Research 109(6): 745-752
- Burki TK (2012). Nigeria's lead poisoning crisis could leave a long legacy. Lancet. 379(9818): 792.
- Dooyema CA, Neri A, Lo YC, Durant J, Dargan PI, Swarthout T et al. (2012). Outbreak of fatal childhood lead poisoning related to artisanal gold mining in northwestern Nigeria, 2010. Environ Health Perspect. 120(4): 601-7.
- Greig J, Thurtle N, Cooney L, Ariti C, Ahmed AO, Ashagre T, et al. (2014) Association of Blood Lead Level with Neurological Features in 972 Children Affected by an Acute Severe Lead Poisoning Outbreak in Zamfara State, Northern Nigeria. PLoS ONE 9(4): e93716.
- Lo YC, Dooyema CA, Neri A, Durant J, Jefferies T, Medina-Marino A et al. (2012). Childhood lead poisoning associated with gold ore processing: a village-level investigation-Zamfara State, Nigeria, October-November 2010. Environ Health Perspect. 120(10): 1450-5.
- Médecins Sans Frontières (2012). Lead poisoning crisis in Zamfara State northern Nigeria. MSF briefing paper 2012. Médecins Sans Frontières. (http://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/sites/ usa/files/Lead Poisoning Crisis in Zamfara State Northern Nigeria.pdf, accessed 05 February 2016).
- Thurtle N, Greig J, Cooney L, Amitai Y, Ariti C, Brown MJ, Kosnett MJ, Mousally K, Sani-Gwarzo N, Akpan H, Shanks L & Dargan PI (2014). Description of 3,180 courses of chelation with dimercaptosuccinic acid in children ≤ 5 y with severe lead poisoning in Zamfara, Northern Nigeria: A retrospective analysis of programme data. PLoS Medicine. 11(10): pmed.1001739.
Chemical Hazards: Lead
- Guha N, Straif K, Benbrahim-Tallaa L (2011).The IARC Monographs on the carcinogenicity of crystalline silica. Med Lav. 102(4): 310-20.
- Gottesfeld P, Andrew D & Dalhoff J (2015). Silica exposures in artisanal and small-scale gold mining in Tanzania and implications for tuberculosis prevention. Occupational and Environmental Hygiene. 12(9): 647-653.
- Rees D & Murray J (2007). Silica , silicosis and tuberculosis. International Journal of Tuberculosis and Lung Disease. 11(5): 474–484.
- Rees D, Murray J, Nelson G & Sonnenberg P (2010). Oscillating migration and the epidemics of silicosis, tuberculosis, and HIV infection in South African gold miners. Amer. J. Industr. Med. 53(4): 398–404.
Chemical Hazards: Silica
- Hinton J, Veiga MM & Beinhoff C (2003b). Women, mercury and artisanal gold mining: risk communication and mitigation. Journal de Physique IV. 107: 617-620.
- Lu JL (2012). Occupational health and safety in small scale mining: focus on women workers in the Philippines. Journal of International Women's Studies. 13(3): 103-113.
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2011b). Toxicological profile for cyanide. (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp.asp?id=72&tid=19, accessed 30 August 2014).
- United Nations Environment Programme (2012). A practical guide: reducing mercury use in artisanal and small-scale gold mining. Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme.
Chemical Hazards: Sodium Cyanide
- Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry (2012). Toxicological profile for carbon monoxide. (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp201.pdf, accessed 01 February 2016).
- Donoghue A (2004). Occupational health hazards in mining: an overview. Occupational Medicine. 54(5): 283-289.
- Hinton J (2006). Communities and small-scale mining: an integrated review for development planning. Washington (DC): World Bank.
- Landrigan PJ & Etzel RA (2013). Textbook of Children's Environmental Health. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chemical Hazards: Toxic Gases: Methane, sulfur dioxide, nitrous oxide, and carbon monoxide
- Centre for Development Studies, University of Wales (2004). Livelihoods and policy in the artisanal and small-scale mining sector: an overview. Swansea: University of Wales.
- Hentschel T, Hruschka F & Priester M (2003). Artisanal and small-scale mining: challenges and opportunities. London: International Institute for Environment and Development.
- Phillips LC, Semboja H, Shukla GP, Swinga R, Mutagwaba W & Mchwmpaka B (2001). Tanzania's precious minerals boom: issues in mining and marketing. Research paper. Washington (DC): US Agency for International Development, Bureau for Africa, Office of Sustainable Development.
- Pommier de Santi V, Dia A, Adde A, Hyvert G, Galant J, Mazevet M et al. (2016). Malaria in French Guiana linked to illegal gold mining. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 22(2): 344-346.
- Rees D, Murray J, Nelson G & Sonnenberg P (2010). Oscillating migration and the epidemics of silicosis, tuberculosis, and HIV infection in South African gold miners. Amer. J. Industr. Med. 53(4): 398–404.
Biological Hazards: HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted infections, TB, cholera and other waterborne diseases, and vector-borne diseases
- Donoghue A (2004). Occupational health hazards in mining: an overview. Occupational Medicine. 54(5): 283-289.
- Hinton J (2006). Communities and small-scale mining: an integrated review for development planning. Washington (DC): World Bank.
- Hinton J, Veiga MM & Beinhoff C (2003b). Women, mercury and artisanal gold mining: risk communication and mitigation. Journal de Physique IV. 107: 617-620.
- International Labour Organization (2006). Minors out of mining! partnership for global action against child labour in small-scale mining. Geneva: International Labour Organization.
- Thorsen D (2012). Children working in mines and quarries: evidence from west and central Africa. Dakar-Yoff: UNICEF West and Central Africa Regional Office.
Social Hazards: Drugs or Violence
Socio-Political Impacts
- Buxton, A (2013). Sustainable Markets: Responding to the Challenge of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining – How Can Knowledge Networks Help? IIED, London. Available at: http://pubs.iied.org/16532IIED/.
- Eftimie A, Heller K, Strongman J, Hinton J, Lahirir-Dutt K, Mutemeri N, et. al. (2012). Gender Dimensions of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining: A Rapid Assessment Toolkit. World Bank, Washington, DC. Available at: https://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTEXTINDWOM/Resources/Gender_and_ASM_Toolkit.pdf.
- Freudenberger MS, Ali S, Fella T, Pennes S (2013). USAID Issue Brief: Property Rights and Artisanal Mining Clarifying And Strengthening Rights: Options For Policymakers. USAID, Washington, DC. Available at: https://www.land-links.org/issue-brief/
property-rights-and-artisanal-mining/.
- GIZ (Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Internationale Zusammenarbeit) (n.d.). Encyclopedia of Gender and Mining: Key Initiatives, Best Practices and Actors. Available at: http://goxi.org/profiles/blogs/encyclopedia-of-gender-and-mining-key-initiatives-best-practices.
- Hentschel T, Hruschka F, Priester M (2002). Global Report on Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, International Institute for Environment and Development, Mining, Minerals & Sustainable Development. Available at: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00723.pdf.
- Hidron, Clara and Koepke, Ronald (2014). Addressing Forced Labor in Artisanal and Small Scale Mining (ASM). Alliance for Responsible Mining 2014. Available at: http://www.responsiblejewellery.com/files/ForcedLaborToolkit-Solidaridad-ARM.pdf.
- Hinton J, Veiga M, Beinhoff C (2003). Chapter 11 – Women and Artisanal Mining: Gender Roles and the Road Ahead. The Socio-Economic Impacts of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining in Developing Countries Ed. G. Hilson, Pub. A.A. Balkema. Swets Publishers, Netherlands. Available at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/336099-1163605893612/hintonrolereview.pdf.
- Human Rights Watch (2015). Precious Metal, Cheap Labor: Child Labor and Corporate Responsibility in Ghana’s Artisanal Gold Mines. Human Rights Watch, United States. https://www.hrw.org/report/2015/06/10/precious-metal-cheap-labor/child-labor-and-corporate-responsibility-ghanas.
- Hund, K., C. Megevand, E. Pereira Gomes, M. Miranda, E. Reed. (2013) Deforestation Trends in the Congo Basin. Reconciling Economic Growth and Forest Protection. Working Paper 4 | Mining. World Bank. Available at: https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/bitstream/handle/10986/16617/779440WP0P11600ort0FINAL0web00may13.pdf;sequence=1.
- International Labour Organization (2005). The Burden of Gold Child Labour in Small-Scale Mines and Quarries. World of Work Magazine No. 54. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/global/publications/world-of-work-magazine/articles/WCMS_081364/lang--en/index.htm.
- International Labour Organization. (2006). Child Labour in Gold Mining. ILO, Geneva.
- International Labour Organization (Accessed March 2017). Child Labor Webpage. Available at: http://www.ilo.org/ipec/facts/lang--en/index.htm.
- International Labour Organization (2003). International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) Facts on Child Labor. ILO, Geneva.
- Javia, I., and P. Siop. 2010. Paper on Challenges and Achievements on Small-scale Mining and Gender. Papua New Guinea. Available at: https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/presentation_javia.pdf.
- Maclin BJ, Kelly JTD, Perks R, Vinck P (2017). Moving to the Mines: Motivations of Men and Women for Migration to Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Sites in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Resources Policy 51: 115-122.
- Maxwell Stamp, PLC (2015). Social & Economic Impacts of Gold Mining. World Gold Council United Kingdom.
- Max Planck Foundation. (2016). Human Rights Risk in Mining: A Baseline Study. Available at: https://www.bmz.de/rue/includes/downloads/BGR_MPFPR__2016__Human_Rights_Risks_in_Mining.pdf.
- Nyame F, Blocher J (2010). Influence of Land Tenure Practices on Artisanal Mining Activity in Ghana. Resources Policy 35: 47-53.
- United Nations Industrial Development Organization (2013). UNIDO and Mercury. UNIDO, Vienna.
- USAID (2000). Mining for Gold in Siguiri: A Close Look at a High-Risk Population. Available at: https://archive.li/YlbKD#selection
-451.0-451.66.
- World Bank (2013). Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining Brief. Available at: https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/extractiveindustries/brief/artisanal-and-small-scale-mining.
- World Bank (2009). Mining Together: Large-Scale Mining Meets Artisanal Mining: A Guide for Action. World Bank, Washington, DC. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/148081468163163514/pdf/686190ESW0P1120ng0Together0HD0final.pdf.
- World Bank (2008). World Bank Issue Brief: Communities, Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining (CASM). World Bank, Washington, DC. Available at: http://artisanalmining.org/casm/sites/artisanalmining.org/files/publication/CASMFACTSHEET.pdf.
- World Health Organization (2016). Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining and Health Technical Paper #1: Environmental and Occupational Health Hazards Associated with Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining. WHO Geneva.
Climate Change Impacts
- IPCC, 2014: Summary for policymakers. In: Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Field, C.B., V.R. Barros, D.J. Dokken, K.J. Mach, M.D. Mastrandrea, T.E. Bilir, M. Chatterjee, K.L. Ebi, Y.O. Estrada, R.C. Genova, B. Girma, E.S. Kissel, A.N. Levy, S. MacCracken, P.R. Mastrandrea, and L.L.White (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1-32.
- Levin E (2009). Climate Change and ASM: The Facts and Implications. Available at: http://www.estellelevin.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/12/Climate-Change-and-ASM.pdf.
Additional Resources
- Bernaudat. UNIDO’s Strategy for Reducing the Impact of Artisanal Gold Mining on the Health and Environment -Study Case in Ghana. Available at: http://projects.inweh.unu.edu/inweh/getdocument.php?F=2496%7Cd832b77b3d04ec7ec4c8393f968b9977.
- Buxton, A (2013). Responding to the challenge of artisanal and small-scale mining: How can knowledge networks help? IIED Sustainable Markets. IIED, London. Available at: http://pubs.iied.org/16532IIED/.
- Chupezi T, Ingram V, Schure J (2009). Impacts of Artisanal Gold and Diamond Mining on Livelihoods and the Environment in the Sangha Tri-National Park Landscape. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Indonesia.
- Columbia University (Accessed March 2017). Artisanal Gold Mining in the Amazon: Small-Scale Actions and Massive Challenges. Columbia University School of Professional Studies, Environment, Peace, and Security. Available at: http://sps.columbia.edu/certificates/environment-peace-and-security-certificate/stories/peru.
- Eftimie A, Heller K, Strongman J, Hinton J, Lahirir-Dutt K, Mutemeri N, et. al. 2012. Gender Dimensions of Artisanal and Small-Scale Mining: A Rapid Assessment Toolkit. World Bank, Washington, DC.
- Fraser, B (2010). Taking on Malaria in the Amazon. The Lancet 2376 (9747): 1133-1134.
- Hentschel T, Hruschka F, Priester M (2002). Global Report on Artisanal & Small-Scale Mining. World Business Council for Sustainable Development, International Instittue for Environment and Development, Mining, Minerals & Sustainable Development. Available at: http://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/G00723.pdf.
- Nelson, G., J. Murray, J.I. Phillips. 2011. The Risk of Asbestos Exposure in South African Diamond Mine Workers. Ann Occup Hyg (2011) 55 (6): 569-577
- Veiga MM, Baker RF (2004). Protocols for Environmental and Health Assessment of Mercury Released by Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Miners. GEF/UNDP/UNIDO, Vienna.
- World Bank (2009). Mining Together: Large-Scale Mining Meets Artisanal Mining: A Guide for Action. World Bank, Washington, DC. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/148081468163163514/pdf/686190ESW0P1120ng0Together0HD0final.pdf.